Interracial marriage in the United States

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Interracial marriage in the United States has been valid in all US states since the 1967 Supreme Court's decision Loving v. Virginia that considers anti-miscegenation laws unconstitutional. The proportion of interracial marriages as a proportion of all marriages has increased since, like that 15.1% of all new marriages in the United States are interracial marriages in 2010 compared to a low one-digit percentage in the mid-20th century. Public approval of interracial marriages increased from about 5% in the 1950s to about 80% in the 2000s. The proportion of racial marriages is very different depending on the ethnic and sex of the couple.

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The age difference of individuals, culminating in generation cleavage, has traditionally played a major role in how mixed ethnic couples are perceived in American society. Interracial marriages are usually highlighted through two points of view in the United States: Egalitarianism and cultural conservatism. The egalitarianism view of racial marriage is the acceptance of the phenomenon, while the traditionalists view racial marriage as taboo and socially unacceptable. The Egalitarian view is usually held by the younger generation, but the older generation has an inherent influence on the younger view. Gurung & amp; Duong (1999) developed a study relating to mixed ethnic relations ("MER" and similar ethnic relations ("SER"), concluding that the individual parts of "MER" generally do not perceive themselves differently from the same ethnic pair.

In the Social Trends in America and the Strategic Approach to the Negotiation Problem (1948), Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal ranked social areas where restrictions were imposed on the liberty of black Americans by white South Americans through racial segregation , from at least to the most important: access to basic public facilities, social equity, jobs, courts and police, politics and marriages. This ranking scheme illustrates the way in which the barriers to desegregation fall: Less important is the separation in basic public facilities, which was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The most tenacious forms of legal separation, the prohibition of interracial marriages, the last anti-marriage law was destroyed in 1967 by a Supreme Court ruling in the landmark case of Loving v. Virginia .

The research of a social company conducted on behalf of Columbia Business School (2005-2007) shows that regional differences in the United States in how racial relationships are perceived have persisted: Daters of both sexes from the southern Mason-Dixon line are found to have much stronger race preferences from the northern dather. The study also observed a clear gender difference in racial preferences related to marriage: Women of all studied races express a strong preference for men of their own race for marriage, with the caveat that East Asian women only discriminate against Black and Hispanics. men, and not against white men. Women's races are found to have no effect on men's choices.

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Several studies have found that the factors that significantly affect an individual's choice with regard to marriage are socioeconomic status ("SES") - a measure of one's income, education, social class, profession, etc. For example, a study by the Center for Behavior and Evolution, University of Newcastle affirms that women show a tendency to marry in socioeconomic status; this reduces the likelihood of low SES men marriage.

Research at Alabama University in Birmingham (UAB) and Texas A & amp; M that discusses the topic of socio-economic status, among other factors, shows that there is no socioeconomic status variable that is positively associated with marriage in Asian America. communities, and finding stable, socially economically stable Asians sometimes take advantage of white marriage as a means of promoting social status.

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Marital instability between the same race and race pairs

A 2008 study by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King conducted on behalf of the Center for Educational Resources examined whether crossing racial boundaries increased the risk of divorce. Using the 2002 National Family Growth Survey (Cycle VI), the possibility of divorce for interracial couples with the same race pair was compared. Comparisons between marriage groups reveal that, overall, interracial couples have higher rates of divorce, especially for those married during the late 1980s. The authors found that gender plays an important role in the dynamics of racial divorce: According to a customized model that predicts divorce in the 10th year of marriage, the most vulnerable racial marriage involves white women and non-white men relative to white couples/white. White wife/husband married black couple are twice as likely to divorce by the 10th wedding year compared to White/White couples, while 59% of white/white Asian husbands marriages are more likely to end in divorce than White/White unions. In contrast, white men/non-white female partners show very little or no difference in divorce rates. Asian Wives/White husbands marriage only showed a 4% greater likelihood of divorce in the 10th wedding year than the White/White couple. In the case of a married Black/White marriage, divorce in the 10th year of marriage is 44% smaller than among White/White unions. Inter-country marriages that do not cross the racial boundary, which is a case of white/white couple, suggest the same possibility for divorce as a White/White marriage.

However, a 2009 study one year later by Yaunting Zhang and Jennifer Van Hook on behalf of the Journal of Marriage and Family using larger sample sizes from previous studies yielded different results with Asian white male/female marriage shown as the most likely for divorce of any marriage partner.

This data comes from Table 3 of Model 4 of Zhang paper, which combines all the controls into the model. White husband, white wife couple used as a control. The numbers are the relative numbers in which the split couples are spouses between black husbands and white wives is 1.62 times more likely to divorce than spouses between white husbands and white wives.

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Census Bureau Statistics

The number of interracial marriages has steadily increased since the Supreme Court's decision of 1967 in Loving v. Virginia , but also continue to represent an absolute minority among the total number of married couples. According to the US Census Bureau, the number of married couples in groups has increased from 310,000 in 1970 to 651,000 in 1980, to 964,000 in 1990, to 1,464,000 in 2000 and to 2,340,000 in 2008; accounting for 0.7%, 1.3%, 1.8%, 2.6% and 3.9% of the total number of married couples in those years, respectively. This statistic does not take into account the mixing of ancestors in the same "race"; for example marriages involving Indian and Japanese ancestors would not be classified as interracial because the Census concerns both as the same category. Likewise, since Hispanics are not race but ethnic, Hispanic and non-Hispanic marriages are not listed as race if both partners of the same race (ie a Black Hispanic marrying a non-Hispanic black couple).

• The cumulative percentage is calculated from left to right

Based on these numbers:

• White Americans are statistically least likely to marry race, although in absolute terms they engage in racial marriages more than other racial groups because of the majority of their demographics. 2.1% of white married women and 2.3% of married white men have non-white partners. 1.0% of all married white men marry an Asian American woman, and 1.0% of married women are married to men who are classified as "others".
• 4.6% of married American Black American women and 10.8% of married Black American men have non-Black partners. 8.5% of married Black men and 3.9% of married Black women have White partners. 0.2% married women Black married Asian-American men, representing the most common combination of marriages.
• There are striking differences in exogamy levels by Asian-American men and women. Of all Asian/White Asian marriages, only 29% involve Asian Asian men and white women. However, American Indian men have higher offspring for men than women, although American Indians show the highest levels of endogamy, with very low overall kinship rates. Of all Asian/Black Asian weddings only 19% involving Asian Asian men and black women. 17.5% of married Asian American women and 8.2% of married Asian Americans have non-Asian American partners.

In 2006, 88% of foreign Hispanic whites were married to Hispanic white women. In terms of marriage out of wedlock, Hispanic men identified as whites have non-Hispanic wives more often than other Hispanic males.

Pew Research Center 2008 report (US census) US Community Survey Bureau 2008)

The table shows that among white people who were out-married in 2008, there were different patterns by sex in their spouse's race. More than a quarter of white men (26.9%) married Asian women, and about 6.9% married black women. In contrast, 20.1% of white women married black men, while only 9.4% married Asian men. The proportion of white women slightly higher than white men married Hispanics (51% versus 46%), and the same share of each sex married someone in another group.

The study found that in 2008:

• A record 14.6% of all new marriages in the United States in 2008 were between pairs of races or ethnicities different from each other. This compares to 8.0% of all current marriages regardless of when they occur. These include marriage between a Hispanic and a non-Hispanic (Hispanic is an ethnic group, not a race) as well as marriage between couples of different races - whether they are white, black, Asian, American Indians or those who identify as from some other race or race.
• Among all newlyweds in 2008, 9% were white, 16% were black, 26% of Hispanics, and 31% of Asians married to somebody whose race or ethnicity was different from their own.
• Among all newlyweds in 2008, married couples were mostly White-Hispanic (41%) compared with White-Asian (15%), White-Black (11%), and Other Combinations (33% ). Another combination consists of couples between different minority groups, multi-racial people, and American Indians.
• Among all newlyweds in 2008, native Hispanics and Asians are much more likely to marry outside than Hispanics and Asians born abroad: 41.3% indigenous native-born males married compared to 11.3% of Hispanic men born overseas. ; 37.4% of married native Hispanic women were compared with 12.2% of foreign born Hispanic women; 41.7% of native-born Asian men were out-married compared to 11.7% of Asian-born foreign males; 50.8% of married native-born Asian women compared to 36.8% of Asian-born foreign women. Foreign births do not include immigrants who arrive married.
• Gender patterns in mixed marriages vary widely. Approximately 22% of all newlyweds of black men in 2008 married outside of their race, compared to only 9% of newlyweds black women. Among Asians, gender patterns work in other ways. About 40% of newlywed Asian women married outside of their race in 2008, compared to only 20% of newlywed Asian brides. Among whites and Hispanics, on the contrary, there is no difference in sex at mixed marriage levels.
• The newly wedded wedding rate in the US more than doubled between 1980 (6.7%) and 2008 (14.6%). However, different groups experience different trends. Prices more than doubled among whites and nearly tripled among blacks. But for Hispanics and Asians, the numbers are almost identical in 2008 and 1980.
• This seemingly contradictory trend is driven by a long and continuous wave of Hispanic and Asian immigration over the past four decades. For whites and blacks, these immigrants (and, increasingly, their recently born married-age children) have enlarged the potential couples for marriage out of wedlock. But for Hispanics and Asians, the ongoing wave of immigration has also enlarged the pool of potential partners for marriage in groups.
• There is a strong regional pattern for inter-ethnic marriages. Among all new marriages in 2008, 22% in the West was inter-racial or interethnic, compared with 13% in the South and Northeast and 11% in the Midwest.
• Most Americans say they agree on racial or ethnic marriages - not only in abstract, but in their own families. More than six-ten said that they would be fine if a family member told them they were going to marry someone from one of three racial/ethnic groups besides themselves.
• More than a third of adults (35%) say they have family members married to someone of a different race. Blacks say this to a higher level than whites; young adults with higher levels than older adults; and Westerners at higher rates than people living in other parts of the country.
The 2010 Pew Research Center Report (US Census Bureau 2010 Survey Bureau)

The study found that in 2010:

• A record of 15.1% of all new marriages in the United States is between couples of different races or ethnicities from each other. This compares to 8.4% of all current marriages regardless of when they occur. These include marriage between a Hispanic and a non-Hispanic (Hispanic is an ethnic group, not a race) as well as marriage between couples of different races - whether they are white, black, Asian, American Indians or those who identify as from some other race or race.
• Among all newlyweds, 9.4% whites, 17.1% blacks, 25.7% Hispanics, and 27.7% Asians marry someone whose race or ethnicity is different from their own race.
• Among all newly married couples, married couples were mostly White-Hispanic (43.3%) compared with White-Asian (14.4%), White-Black (11.9%), and Other Combinations (30.4%). Another combination consists of couples between different minority groups, multi-racial people, and American Indians.
• Among all newlyweds, native Hispanics and Asians are much more likely to intermarry than Hispanics and Asians born overseas: 36.2% of Native Americans (male and female) are married off with 14.2% foreign-born Hispanic; 32% of native-born Asian men out-married compared to 11% of Asian-born overseas men; 43% of married native-born Asian women compared to 34% of Asian-born foreign women. Foreign births do not include immigrants who arrive married.
• Gender patterns in mixed marriages vary widely. About 24% of all newly groomed black men in 2010 married outside of their race, compared to only 9% of newlyweds black women. Among Asians, gender patterns work in other ways. About 36% of newlywed Asian women married outside their race in 2010, compared to only 17% of newlywed Asian brides. Among whites and Hispanics, on the contrary, there is no difference in sex at mixed marriage levels.
• The new inter-wedding fare in the US has nearly tripled since 1980 (6.7%) increased to 14.6% in 2008 and 15.1% in 2010.
• There is a strong regional pattern for inter-ethnic marriages. Among all the new marriages in 2010, 22% in the West were interracial or interethnic, compared with 14% in the South, 13% in the Northeast and 11% in the Midwest.



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Wedding between races by pairing

Asia and White

Marriage between European Americans and Asian Americans is increasingly common for both sexes in the United States.

Asian Americans of both sexes raised in the US are much more likely to marry white people than their non-US counterparts. Of all Asian American groups studied, American Indians showed the highest endogamous level, with the majority of American Indian women and men marrying American Indian partners. The American Indians are also the only Asian-American group to have a higher marriage for men, while all other Asian American groups have higher marriages for women. The 1998 Post Washington article says 36% of US-born young US-American men marry white women, and 45% of US-born Asian Pacific American women take white husbands during the publication year.

Anti-ordegenation laws that discourage marriage between whites and non-whites affect Asian immigrants and their spouses from the late seventeenth to early twentieth centuries. In 1910, 28 countries forbade certain forms of interracial marriage. Eight states including Arizona, California, Mississippi, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Texas, and Utah extend their ban to include people of Asian descent. The laws of Arizona, California, Mississippi, Texas, and Utah refer to "Mongolians". Asians in California are prohibited by the anti-marriage law from marrying White Americans (a group including the American Hispanic). Nevada and Oregon refer to "China," while Montana mentions "Chinese" and "Japanese" people. For example, a Eurasian girl born to an Indian father and an Irish mother in Maryland in 1680 was classified as "mulato" and sold as a slave, and the white-blooded wife of Tarak Nath Das of Bengali blood, Mary K. Das, was stripped of her. American citizenship for his marriage to "aliens is not eligible for citizenship." In 1918, there was controversy in Arizona when an Indian farmer married the sixteen-year-old daughter of one of his White tenants. The California law does not explicitly prohibit Filipinos and whites to marry, a fact brought to the public's attention by the California Supreme Court case of 1933 Roldan v. Los Angeles County ; but the legislature quickly moved to amend the law to ban such marriages as well after the case. Virginia implicitly forbade white and Asian marriages in the 1924 Race Integrity Act, which prohibits marriage between whites and those who have "any trace of blood other than Caucasian" except for persons with 1/16 or less Native American ancestry.

Black and White

In the United States there is a historical difference between the black male ratios and exogamous black men: according to the US Census Bureau, there are 354,000 white/black males and 196,000 male black/white men in March 2009, representing a ratio of 181: 100. This traditional gap has experienced a rapid decline over the past two decades, in contrast to its peak in 1981 when the ratio was still 371: 100. In 2007, 4.6% of all Blacks who married in the United States were married with white partners, and 0.4% of all white husbands married to black partners.

The role of gender in the dynamics of racial divorce, found in social studies by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King, is highlighted when examining marital instability among Black/White unions. White husbands/black husbands marriage shows twice the divorce rate of the White White couple in the 10th year of marriage, while the Black wife/White husband married 44% less likely to end in divorce than the White/White White couple during the same period.

Native Americans and Asians

Filipino Filipinos are often married to Native Americans and Alaskan Natives. In the 17th century, when the Filipinos were under Spanish rule, the Spanish colonists ensured Philippine trade between the Philippines and America. When the Mexicans rebelled against the Spaniards, the Filipinos first fled to Mexico, then traveled to Louisiana, where exclusively male men married Native American women. In the 1920s, Filipino worker communities in America also grew up in Alaska, and Filipinos of American descent married Alaskan Native women. On the west coast, Filipino Americans marry Native American women in Bainbridge Island, Washington.

Asia and Black

With African Americans and Asian Americans, the ratio is even more unbalanced, with about five times as many men as Asian/African male marriages than Asian/African male marriages. However, C.N. Le estimates that among Asian Americans of 1.5 generation and of the five largest Asian ethnic groups, this ratio narrows to about two to one. Although the differences between inter-African Americans and Asian-American marriages on the basis of gender are very high according to the 2000 US Census, the total number of Asian/American American racial marriages is low, only 0.22% for Asian-American male marriages and 1.30%. percent of Asian women's marriages, partly contributed by new fluctuations of Asian immigrants.

Historically, American Chinese men married African American women in high proportion to the number of their marriages because some Chinese American women were in the United States. After the Emancipation Proclamation, many Chinese Americans immigrated to Southern countries, especially Arkansas, to work on plantations. The tenth US Census of Louisiana counts 57% of interracial marriages among Chinese Americans with African-Americans and 43% for with American-European women. After the Chinese Exclusion Act, Chinese American men have fewer ethnic Chinese wives, so they marry African American women on the West Coast. In Jamaica and other Caribbean countries, also many Chinese men of the previous generation took African wives, gradually assimilating or absorbing many Chinese descendants into the Caribbean African community or the mixed race community as a whole.

Native American and White

The inter-racial gap between the sexes among Native Americans is low. According to the 1990 US Census (which only counts indigenous people with tribal affiliations recognized by the US government), Native American women marry 2% more European Americans than Indigenous American men marry European American women. Historically in Latin America, and to a lesser extent in the United States, Native Americans have been married at high levels. Many countries in Latin America have large Mestizo populations; in many cases, mestizo is the largest ethnic group in their respective country.

Native American and Black

In the United States, racial unity between Native Americans and African-Americans has also existed throughout the 16th century until the early 20th century which resulted in some African Americans having a Native American heritage.

Throughout American history, there has been a mixture of Native Americans and black Africans. When Native Americans invaded the European colony of Jamestown, Virginia in 1622, they killed Europeans but took African slaves as prisoners, gradually integrating them. Race relationships occur between African-Americans and members of other tribes along the coastal states. During the transition period Africans became the enslaved main races, Native Americans were sometimes enslaved by them. Africans and Native Americans work together, some even married and have mixed children. The relationship between Africans and Native Americans is seen as a threat to Europeans and Europeans-Americans, who actively seek to separate Native Americans and Africans and put them against each other.

During the eighteenth century, several Native American women turned into free-spirited Africans or fled because of the large decline in the male population in Native American villages. At the same time, the early slave population in America was disproportionately male. The records show that some Native American women buy African men as slaves. Unknown to European sellers, the women liberate and marry people into their tribe. Some African men choose Native American women as their partners because their children will be free, because the child's status follows the mother. Men can marry some matrilineal tribes and be accepted, because their children are still considered to be the property of their mother's people. As European expansion increased in Southeast marriage, Africa and Native Americans became more numerous.



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Public opinion

Historically, racial marriages in the United States were a large (often taboo) public dispute, especially among whites. According to a poll, in 1986 only one-third of Americans approved intermarriage in general. In 2011, most Americans approve marriages between races in general, while only 20 years ago in 1991 less than half were approved. It was not until 1994 that more than half of Americans approve such marriages in general. It should be noted that the level of approval/rejection differs between demographic groups (eg by race, gender, age, and socio-economic status and marriage).



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Marriage hardening

A term has emerged to describe the social phenomenon of so-called "extortionary marriage" for African American women. "Marriage extortion" refers to the perception that the most "qualified" and "desirable" African American men marry non-African American women at a higher level, leaving African American women with few partner options. According to Newsweek , 43% of African American women between the ages of 30 and 34 have never been married.



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Religion and interracial marriage

Historically, many American religions do not approve of racial marriages. Religious traditions and church attendance are consistent predictors of attitudes toward intermarriage marriages. Biblical literalists tend not to favor intermarriage marriages with Asians and Latins. Whites who attend multiracial congregations or engage in devotional religious practice are more likely to support interracial marriages. The region also moderates the relationship between religion and interfaith dating. Children with religious upbringing in non-Western countries, particularly the South, are less likely to have racial dating than those without a religious background. Religious attitudes combined with Christian nationalism increase the opposition to marriage among nations more than an attribute that is independently measured.

According to a Baylor University study, "people without religious affiliation are no more statistically more likely to be in different marriages than evangelical or mainline or people of other religions" with one exception, Catholics. Catholics are twice as likely to be in interracial marriages than the general population. It is thought that the reason for this is twofold: the increasing diversity of Catholic populations (who have witnessed immense waves of immigrants, the Catholic religion has a significant number of followers of many countries around the world) and the fact that Catholics usually base their choices. parishes on geography and not on their ethnic or racial makeup that creates more opportunities for mixing between races. The Jews were also more likely to date than the Protestants.

Some religions are actively teaching against racial marriages. For example, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints recommends to oppose marriage between races, but not forbid it. On the other hand, Baha'i's faith promotes inter-racial marriage as a prerequisite for achieving world peace.



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Immigrants and interracial marriages

Racial endogamy is significantly stronger among new immigrants. This result applies to all racial groups, with the strongest endogamy found among African-African immigrants. Interestingly, gender differences in racial marriages changed significantly when non-white couples were immigrants. For example, African-African immigrants are more likely to marry US-born Caucasians than their male counterparts.



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Wedding between races versus cohabitation

In the United States, the rate of racial cohabitation is significantly higher than marriage. Although only 7% of married African Americans have European American wives, 12.5% ​​of African American men living together have European American partners. 25% of married Asian-American women have European partners, but 45% of Asian American women living with European American men - are higher than the percentage of live with Asian men (less than 43%). Of Asian cohabiting men, slightly more than 37% of Asian men have white female partners and more than 10% are married to white women. These figures show that the prevalence of intimate racial contact is about twice that of marital data.



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See also

• Multiracial America
• Contest (US Census)



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References

Source of the article : Wikipedia